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Song in the Sumatran Highlands

Term: Nagari

"Nagari" is a Minangkabau administrative unit that is a federation of villages. It not, therefore, synonymous with the Indonesian term for village, "desa."

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Introduction to Songs Songs--called "dendang" in Minangkabau and "lagu" in Indonesian--are at the heart of saluang. But just what is a song in the context of saluang and how do people talk about them, how do they know and approach them as things in the world? This page provides a basic introduction to help orient you, the user, to the local ways of knowing and thinking about these songs.
What is a song?
What constitutes a song--that is what makes up the DNA of any given song--might be different than your definition. Very few of these songs have identified composers. These songs are identified by title and tune, not by their lyrics. That is because the textual content is not fixed. That content may--and usually does--change from one performance to the next, with padendang drawing on their stock of memorized verses or creating them anew in response to the performance context and interactions with the audience members. Make sure to read song texts for more information. People identify songs largely by their structure, including melodic and rhythmic content. But they also categorize individual songs and group them together based on similarities in a variety of different ways.
Classification of songs
Practitioners and devotees of saluang alike provide a number of categories for classifying songs. These categories provide local ways of knowing the repertoire, ways of interpreting, understanding, learning, appreciating, requesting and otherwise interacting with the songs. The most important ways of knowing and classifying the songs are through type of song and their place affiliations. In presenting individual songs in this site, we engage and use these local systems of knowledge to organize them. It is also important to note that different people might have divergent knowledge about a song's associations, based on their positionality and individualized experiences. The associations presented in this site reflect an identification provided by an individual to me. That doesn't make it necessarily it the "right" interpretation. I think the moments of multiple identifications are more fascinating than the clear cut cases, revealing the way knowledge is differently structured and experienced by individuals.
Classification by type of song
Most practitioners and devotees classify the songs according to one of three song types: ratok (sad songs, literally from the word "lament"), gembira (happy songs) and those in between, satangah tiang (literally "half mast"), which are sometimes described as "half happy" and sometimes as "half sad," depending on who is talking. There are also a large collection of songs from the region called Singgalang. Some people refer to these songs--a very distinctive collection--as a fourth category and others refer to them as a subcategory of ratok.
Classification by function
There are a few songs that are classified according to their function: talingkin (songs sung without saluang in the middle of a performance) and jalu-jalu (the songs used to close a performance).
Classification by place affiliation
Most songs are affiliated with places, identified by performers and devotees as affiliated with either the darek or the rantau, a specific luak or kabupaten, a region (an area that doesn't map neatly onto any one administrative unit), a nagari, or a specific landmark.
Classification by pokok
Tukang saluang (flute players) also classify the songs according to pokok (a system that references how many finger holes are open or closed). This is a more specialized level of knowledge, so we've opted to exclude it for now.
Origin of songs
Most of the songs in the repertoire are considered "klasik," meaning they have been part and parcel of the genre for a very long time. The genre, however, incorporates new material from other genres, both regional Minangkabau practices, such as indang or sijobang, and popular genres, such as regional and national dangdut tunes. It is not clear how long this incorporation of "outside" material has been occurring, but it has been occurring at least since I started tracking songs in 2003-2004. See Songs Imported from Other Genres.
Attribution of Songs
Most of the songs in the repertoire are not attributed to any specific composer. Most of these songs could be considered part of the "klasik" repertoire, composed before the practice of making connections between content and individual ownership. There are some songs, however, that we present here that do have attributed composers, most of whom are well-known padendang (see composers). Practitioners and connoisseurs alike sometimes offer attribution in discussing the songs, but there is not always agreement in that attribution. I expect that is for a number of reasons: not documented in writing, people offering covers and variations, people familiar with the first person to have popular or commercial success with a tune, even if they didn't initially compose the tune. It is sometimes difficult to parse these stories to get to the truth, whatever that may be; instead it is best to consider each claim telling a different kind of truth.
Structure of Songs
Most songs are strophic in form, meaning the melody stays consistent for each verse. There are a handful of songs, for example, "Pariaman Panjang" and "Kambang Aia Aji," that have multiple parts, with each part having a distinct melody. These parts are know as induak (mother) and anak (child). While there is an ideal progression of order through these multi-part songs (say induak, anak, anak), my recordings suggest that order is not always followed. See Songs with Interesting Features.
Term: Kampung
The identity of someone who identifies as Minangkabau is partially oriented around the notion of one’s kampung (literally a village or district in an urban area), but in this instance shorthand for kampung halaman (literally “native village”). The kampung halaman is usually conceptualized as “home”—even if a person does not currently live there, never has lived there, or rarely visits—because it is tied to one's ancestral heritage: the place where a person will trace their mother’s line. This "home" is typically traced to a particular nagari or the jorong (subdivisions within it). Minangkabau trace their ancestral heritage through their mother’s line from the broadest classification, suku (clan), down to the narrowest, the sub-lineage.
Although many migrants were not born nor have ever lived in their ancestral nagari, their identification with it is important. My host mother, for example, who was raised in Java and only moved to the homeland after marriage, identifies her place of origin as the nagari of Sulit Air, even though she has never resided there. Nagari, and the broader units within which they are contained, provide a basis for many Minangkabau migrant collectivities in the rantau, such as Jakarta, Bandung, and other multi-ethnic cities.

The attachment to one’s place of origin is manifest in the return of migrants during Lebaran (celebrations following the end of Ramadan), when they come "home" to visit extended families and friends. Most of my host mother's siblings lived in lived in Java, in Surakarta, Bandung, and Jakarta, while she had other relatives in Jakarta and Pekanbaru. During Lebaran, these families often returned to the homeland, visiting us in Padang Panjang while they were there. My host father, in comparison, was born and raised in Koto Panjang, a different neighborhood of Padang Panjang from where he currently lived, Kampung Jambak. All his sisters still lived there and this was his “home,” the place where he traveled for holidays centered on family connections. During major ritual days, such as Idul Fitri, the day marking the end of Ramadan, the first port of call for the entire family, myself included, after morning prayers was his ancestral home.
In saluang, this ancestral place of origin is activated in a number of ways. Many saluang performers live in Payokumbuah, but when they say they are from x, y or z, they are referring to this ancestral place of origin (see Mapping Performers). Pagurau sometimes request songs because they are from their place of origin, especially when they have relocated further away from their home. People have a strong emotional attachment to their place of origin and the homeland.