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Song in the Sumatran Highlands

People: Te E

Stage Name: Te E; "Te" means "aunty;" it's used as a term of respect. When I first started working on saluang, she was identified as Si E. "Si" indicates a younger woman, so as the padendang age, their names change.
Other Names: Ernawati.
Role: Padendang.
Sex: Female.
Time Frame: Contemporary Figure
Source: personal encounter at performances in 2015 and 2016, along with an interview in 2016.
Born: 1958.
Died: n/a.
Place of Origin: Sei (Sungai) Tanang.
Place of Residence: Parik Rantang.
Year started performing: 1974, when she was 16.
Training: She participated in the group, Minang Maimbau, led by Syamsimar
Relationships to other performers: Her first husband was tukang rabab, Nijon.
Performances:

Performance: Suayan, August 1, 2015.
Performance: Sariak Laweh, July 25, 2016.

Interviews: July 25, 2016.
Songs composed:
Recordings:
Other notes:

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Performance: Suayan, August 1, 2015 24 Malam Bagurau image_header 2021-06-25T18:00:39+00:00 -0.17798, 100.48907 08/01/2015
Date: August 1-2, 2015
Time:
Place: Suayan
Style: Saluang Klasik
Occasion: Malam Bagurau for a Wedding

Set up: The stage for this performance involve a structure erected at one end of a dry and empty rice field. The material used to hold up the back and the roof covering was bamboo, the roof covering a blue nylon tarpaulin, and the back a multicolor striped nylon cloth of the kind used to cover and wrap materials for transportation of goods on the back of a pickup. The floor of the stage was covered with a plastic mat with no other padding provided. No chairs were provided for the audience so a few crowded on to the stage with the performers.

Performers:
- Padendang:
  - Te E
  - Nor Cingkariang
- Tukang Saluang:
  - Bujang Rao-Rao
- Janang:
  - None, as is appropriate for a malam bagurau attached to a wedding.
Audience:
Ethnographers: Jennifer & Pak Ketua
Attendance:
Notes:
People: Syamsimar 23 Syamsimar was a legendary padendang image_header 2021-03-02T21:41:42+00:00 -0.45471, 100.49178 September 24, 2004
Stage Name: Syamsimar (also spelled Samsimar)
Other Names: None known.
Role: Padendang.
Sex: Female.
Time Frame: Contemporary Figure
Source: personal interactions at performances and through an interview in 2004.
Born: Historical records of her birth are not exact. There are estimates that range from 1936-1945, with the later range more likely.
Died: June 14, 2011.
Place of Origin: Guguak, Pariangan.
Place of Residence: Pariangan.
Year started performing: @1965.
Training: Syamsimar learned from her father, Djamain Dt. Tumbijo, who was a tukang saluang.

Relationships to other performers:
- her 4th husband, Yusri Lelo Sati (m. 1966), was a tukang saluang.
- her niece, Hutamawati, is a tukang dendang.
Group:
- Syamsimar and her husband Yusri Lelo Sati established a group called Minang Maimbau. Other members, according to Mardjani (pp. 396, 400), include
  - Aminuddin, tukang saluang
  - Asminar, padendang
  - Hutamawati, padendang
  - Ernawati, padendang: Is this the singer now known as Te E? When I interviewed Te E she did not mention this.
- When Yusri Lelo Sati died (1989), tukang saluang accompanying Syamsimar included Hen Peke and Malin Cayo.
Performances:
- As a special guest at Performance: Pariangan, February 10, 2004.
- As a special guest at Performance: Padang Panjang, April 10, 2004.
Interviews: September 24, 2004.
Songs composed:
1. Song: "Banda Sapuluah"
2. Song: "Bungo Larangan"
3. Song: "Bujang Marando" (source: Syamsimar)
4. Song: "Guguak Maniti Ameh" (obit.)
5. Song: "Indang Bareh Maha"
6. Song: "Indang Kurinci"
7. Song: "Indang Sirenti"
8. Song: "Kamaman"
9. Song: "Kambang Aia Aji"
10. Song: "Kutang Barendo" (source: Syamsimar)
11. Song: "Lego Puyuah"
12. Song: "Lintau Basiang" (obit.)
13. Song: "Lubuak Aluang"
14. Song: "Manyongsong Riak" (obit.): is this the same song as "Riak Mayonsong Bayua"?
15. Song: "Palaiaran"
16. Song: "Piaman Lamo" (obit.)
17. Song: "Racun Dunia"
18. Song: "Salawaik Talam" (source: Syamsimar)
19. Song: "Singgalang Oyak Kapua"
20. Song: "Siriah Langkok" (source: Syamsimar)
21. Song: "Talempong Unggan" (source: Syamsimar)
Recordings:
Other notes:
Repertoire Songs are the central musical unit around which performances are oriented. There might be anywhere from thirty to fifty songs performed in one evening. Many contexts for performance allow for attendees to request specific songs (see Introduction to Performances for more details). Performers, therefore, need to be familiar with the songs in the repertoire (the body of songs attached to the genre), but just how many songs and which songs are included in that repertoire is debatable and fluid. The "core repertoire" (defined here loosely as those songs I tracked at performances) in 2016 was not the same as those I tracked in 2004, nor surely the same as the 1980s, as suggested by the Mardjani et al. research report. The songs that performers know and that attendees request have shifted over the years, though the requests also shift based on place: where performances happen and the places from which attendees at those performances come. The "Repertoire" and "Interpretation" pages for each performance reflect the specific repertoire at each performance. For example, the performance in Suayan: repertoire and interpretation.

Establishing a precise number of songs in the repertoire is next to impossible as the tradition is not static and there is regional variation. The estimates of the number of songs vary greatly. When I spoke with Mak Sawir back in January 2004, he estimated 860 songs (casual conversation, January 26, 2004, coffeeshop in Bukittinggi). When I asked Te E in July 2016, she furnished a list of 227 songs that she made (interview with Te E, Payokumbuah, July 25, 2016). Mak Lenggang, a full time professor at Institut Seni Indonesia and part-time saluang player, told me once there were hundreds of songs, 150 of which were Singgalang (interview/ casual conversation, Padang Panjang, July 27, 2015). My favorite answer to this question--"too many to count"-- was from Mila (interview, Payokumbuah, July 26, 2016). These widely varying numbers, then, reveal differences in the experiences of performers: how many years they have been active, who they studied and performed with, and in what places they lived and mostly performed. I would expect Mak Sawir, then at the height of his career, to know the most, and a more junior singer to know considerably fewer. I would expect a padendang active mostly in Agam to have mastered that regional repertoire more than the repertoire associated with Tanah Data. The very best singers--such as Mak Sawir and Te E--will know the most songs, at least from the saluang klasik repertoire. It is incumbent on professionals to be as familiar with as many songs as possible because audience members can request any number of songs. Usually, one of the several padendang sitting on a stage will know the song. Of course, the tukang saluang also needs to know it as the saluang always begins a song. Only rarely have I see experienced performers fumble, struggling to remember a tune.

The only performer who has so far shared a list of songs with me is Te E. When I interviewed Syamsimar in 2004, she had a list of 247 songs (which excluded new imports), though I was not able to save a copy of this list (interview with Syamsimar, Pariangan, September 24, 2004). What is interesting is who has made lists and why they did so. Here we have tried to track and count those songs encountered, whether in live performance, Te E's list, or the list produced in Mardjani et al.'s research report. For the latter, however, it does not replicate all 385 songs, because the report was on Dendang Minangkabau broadly speaking and not just the repertoire associated with saluang. I decided to extract all those titles that were clearly affiliated with the darek. I excluded those that had no indication of region or those that were affiliated with the rantau, as they are affiliated with other musical traditions and the songs may not have made their way into saluang repertoire. Also excluded from this list are the titles to songs encountered only on commercial recordings in my possession. That would add another 30 or so titles to the list.

In the following pages, we present different ways of organizing the repertoire, along with the repertoire that was represented at performances Jennifer witnessed.
Performance: Sariak Laweh, July 25, 2016 20 Malam Bagurau image_header 2021-05-12T19:13:22+00:00 -0.22432, 100.5288 07/25/2016
Date: July 25-26, 2016
Time: 10p.m.-3.15a.m.
Place: Sariak Laweh

Style: This performance was unique of those I attended in 2016 as it included a range of musical styles, much to the surprise of Te E, who had specifically invited Pak Ketua and I to the performance. She had anticipated that it would only be saluang klasik, as she declined invitations to performances where the style would be what she called "campua adok" (all mixed up).

The three styles here include:
- Saluang klasik: this is the main style discussed in this project.
- Saluang orgen: instrumentation and songs from saluang klasik combined with the use of an orgen (the local term used for synthesizer)
- Orgen: this refers to a line-up of singer/s with orgen. The songs are typically from local pop genres and not from the saluang repertoire.
Occasion: Malam Bagurau for a Wedding. In this case, the music was the night time entertainment, after a long day of receiving guests.

Set up: A stage was set up next to the house, with tables and chairs set out under a canopy. Some pagurau chose to stand on the sides, in the adjacent rice paddies.

Performers:
- Padendang:
  - Te E
  - Si Sri
  - Ika
- Tukang Saluang: Kamarudin
- Orgen: Warlan, 1994 graduate of ASKI (now ISI).
- Janang: None. It is customary to not have a janang at a wedding.
Audience: At the beginning of the evening, the audience was mixed gender. But as the night progressed, the women went home and the men were left. I estimated about 150 people at the peak.

Ethnographers: Jennifer & Pak Ketua
Attendance: We were there for the entirety of the performance, from the opening with "Singgalang Induak" packing up as the singers launched into "Jalu-Jalu."
Notes:
Songs by Place Affiliation The connection between songs and places is important, one of the key ways people categorize songs. Some songs are named for places with which they are affiliated, the place name appearing in the title. Some people call these "lagu asal" (songs of the place of origin), other people, such as Te E, call them "lagu daerah" (songs of regions). Other songs are affiliated with places, known to come from there, but they do not have the place name in their title. At the broadest level, there are those songs from the darek and those from the rantau. Explore the pathways below to follow the increasingly smaller geographic affiliations.
People: Nijon 12 Nijon was a tukang rabab. image_header 2021-05-08T14:28:39+00:00 -0.164466, 100.537014
Stage Name: Nijon.
Other Names:
Role: Tukang Rabab & Padendang, the rabab allowing a performer to play and sing.
Sex: Male.
Time Frame: Historical-contemporary Figure
Source: I heard about him during ethnography; he is also listed in Mardjani et. al.
Born: 1944.
Died: @1997 (Sanday 2002: 168).
Place of Origin: Sungai Talang
Place of Residence: Payokumbuah.
Year started performing:
Trained under the following tukang rabab:
- Mak Agam, from Magek
- Samsu, from Kubang
- Mangkuto Mawi, from Biaro
- Rajo Bujang, from Kamang
Relationships to other performers: He was the first husband of the padendang now known as Te E.
Performances:
Songs composed: According to Sanday, a number of songs about his kampung, Sungai Talang (2002). They are not, however, identified by title.
- Song: "Tigo Balai": identified by Pak Ketua as his compositions during performance of it at Sariak Laweh
Recordings:
Other notes: Like Ajis St. Sati, he also worked as a bendi driver.
Contexts for Saluang Performance 9 This page explains various contextual factors for saluang performances image_header 2021-09-02T01:09:26+00:00
This page outlines a range of contextual factors that all have a hand in shaping the way a performance unfolds.
What
Saluang performances are held in association with a wide variety of events, ranging from events hosted by families to those hosted by communities or institutions. All the events at which saluang is found have a celebratory nature: the music enhances a sense of festivity and sociability.
- Life cycle events, especially weddings and circumcisions
- Community celebrations, such as fundraisers, halal-bihalal
- Bagurau Lapiak
When
Saluang performances are more common at certain times of the year than others. While Indonesia adheres to the Gregorian calendar for official business, the Islamic calendar equally structures the passage of time in Minangkabau society. Saluang performances won't be found at all during the holy month of Ramadan, when it is not appropriate to hold celebrations of any kind. As the most popular time for weddings and circumcisions is the month following Ramadan, saluang performances are the most frequent then. Jennifer deliberately designed her plan for fieldwork around this calendar. The patina of religiosity lingers through Lebaran and in the week or two afterwards, which does have some influence on the participation in and modesty at saluang performances. Finally, families and communities hosting events might give some consideration to season, whether it is the rainy or dry season. The dry season is better for hosting events held outside with strong attendance. The weather, however, has been less predictable with climate change. In summary, the following are important temporal factors that structure the ways events unfold:
- The year: performances were different in 2003-2004 vs. 2015-2016
- The month, particularly according to the Islamic calendar
- The season: dry or wet, which will affect people's ability to travel.
Where
Saluang performances occur wherever there is a sizable Minang population. The location where an event is held is very influential on the way an event will unfold, in part structuring to some extent the performers who are invited and the pagurau who attend, but also for the repertoire that might be requested. Historically, Bukittinggi was considered the "center" for saluang, with many performers in residence there. Over time, however, Payokumbuah became the center: many performers are now located in or near Payokumbuah.

The broadest distinction with regard to location is between events held in the darek vs. the rantau, including areas of the rantau beyond the borders of West Sumatra. The specific luak is another factor, as is the specific nagari, particularly if there are songs affiliated with it. A performance held in Luak Agam is likely to have some differences from one held in Luak Limo Puluah Koto. Both will have differences from a performance held in areas of the rantau, such as Solok or Pasaman. Those performances held beyond the province would be different yet again. The best singers, like Te E, have stories of traveling to neighboring provinces in Sumatra, including Riau, Jambi, Bengkulu, North Sumatra; to Jakarta and other parts of Java; and to parts of Malaysia. I've never attended a saluang performance in the rantau so I can't speak to how they are structured, but I wonder if people don't request the most classic songs, the songs closely associated with their hometowns. Finally, events held in urban centers are likely different from those in more rural locales. This factor is probably most influential on the participants, generating greater attendance closer to population centers. But it is not the only consideration. If a very famous singer will be singing in a more rural location, like Te E in Suayan (about 2 hours one direction by motorbike from Payokumbuah), pacandu are willing to travel.

Another factor that plays into the way performances unfold are the physical spaces in which they are located. There is a difference if they are held in a home or in a communal space, the inside of a house or in the yard. When they are held in communal spaces, are these regular gathering spaces for community events, a public marker, a specially-built cafe or road side stall? Are the guests seated at tables and chairs, on rows of chairs, mats on the floor, or must they stand?
Who
Who is hosting a saluang performance has a strong hand in shaping it, including the choice of performers, the choice of saluang styles, and so on. These factors include whether the host is an individual/ family, a community, or an institution. The economic capital of the host affects the budget for an event, which is turn might affect the style of saluang and the physical set up. The performances with the lowest budget, for example, are least likely to have seating or snacks for the pagurau (see Performance: Suayan, August 1, 2015 vs. Performance: Batu Balang, July 17, 20160. The religious values of the hosts--the relative piety--will affect the presence or absence of porno lyrics. The performers and pagurau will be more modest if they know a host is more devout. If a host is a known pacandu, then the event will be of a different quality, have different songs, and/or different interactions between performers and pagurau or among pagurau than if the host is less familiar with the scene.
Economics of performance
How a performance is structured relatively to economics shapes its structure. The most important distinction here is whether
- Performers are contracted in advance for the event: they are paid some uang muka ("face money," an advance) at the time they are contracted and the remainder at the performance. This can be the case even if the performance is functioning as a fundraiser, where all funds contributed for the honor of making requests goes to the designated cause.
- Performers need to generate their own income, working for tips and a share of the evening's takings (see bagurau lapiak).
Summary
In short, each event is completely unique and the conditions are not replicable.
Text: Pantun Porno When references in song texts are made through allusion to sexual organs, sexual acts, or particular people engaging in such activities, they are identified locally as "porno," a term clearly borrowed from the English term "pornography." When those references are explicit they are considered "vulgar," another word borrowed from English, or "telanjang," a word that translates as "naked," suitable for things that are made explicit.

A well-known example of a textual theme that is considered porno is "sawah liek,” literally “dry rice field,” a metaphor for a widow or divorcee who needs to be plowed with a strong hoe, just like a dry rice field.

Not all performers and audience members are comfortable with porno and vulgar song texts: the topic of sex is illicit and taboo in everyday contexts. Mak Sawir was very vocal in speaking against their presence in saluang (interview 2010 and 2016). He vehemently refused to sing during songs that had any such associations, including "Oyak Ambacang" at the RRI Performance in 2004. Te E complies with audience requests for these song titles, like "Oyak Ambacang," by delivering their melodic content but she refuses to sing lyrics that would be classified as either porno or vulgar.

There are also pagurau who are uncomfortable with porno texts and their increasing presence. I have talked to people, often with a strong sense of Islamic piety, who have shied away from saluang performances in recent years for this reason.

Song titles that are considered porno (see Song Titles with Porno Associations) are likely to have porno lyrics, but they can appear in all types of songs, even ratok!
Examples of Porno Pantun
In putting these together, I had to be careful of selecting texts things that might be explicit enough to move from porno to texts that are considered telanjang/naked. Such a determination is obviously culturally sensitive and personally subjective.
Example #1
Isi from Induak #2, Rendition: "Kambang Aia Aji" 07/17/2016
Minangkabau
Bakato insan dalam dado
Rancak mamauik burung pipik
Pado manguruang buruang nuri
Buruang nuri pamaliang paham
Sangka nyo sangko palabuahan
Ka tampek singgah samantaro
Indonesian
Berbicara dalam hati
Bagus mengikat burung pipit
Daripada mengikat burung nuri
Burung nuri suka menipu
Sangkarnya sangkar pelabuhan
Untuk tempat singgahan sementara.
English
To speak with feeling
It is good to bond with a sharp-tailed munia (a kind of small bird)
Rather than bond with a parrot
Parrots like to deceive/ steal
The birdcage is a place of safe harbor
A place to stop by momentarily.
Interpretation
Pak Ketua told me that on one level this pantun operates as a pantun nasehat: it's better to be an orang kecil (one of the masses) with good character than a rich or handsome character with bad morals, who steal like the parrots. But at another level it is also porno as the birdcage, the place for safe harbor, is a woman's sexual organs, more specifically the vagina. He suggested, however, that most listeners would not get this reference.
Example #2

Isi#7 from Rendition: "Lego Puyuah" 12/02/2003
Minangkabau
Mancaliak urang maadu puyuah
Balam disangkak maangguak pulo
English
Look at the people fighting like quails
Your desire increases.
Interpretation
Fighting like quails is a metaphor for sexual intercourse. The second porno reference makes a metaphor reference to sexual arousal in a man as "balam" is a metaphor for a penis.
Choosing Saluang Style
Why does one host prefer saluang klasik and work to secure the best singers for their event while another prefers a mix of style, working to bend saluang klasik with more popular styles, like saluang orgen or just plain orgen? To revisit the list of styles list the module on style.

The various contextual factors that structure the when, why, and what of an event play into and help guide the choice of saluang style a host family or organization are likely to desire at their event. The choice of style also has to do with positionally, or how a host choses to position themselves: are they traditionalists or are they cosmopolitan? Do they want to assert a foot in both worlds? Do they have the economic capital to do so? Put simply, those who are pacandu or saluang devotees will always choose saluang klasik as will those working with more limited budgets. But those who are interested in projecting themselves as a little more cosmopolitan might attempt a blend, like the event at Sariak Laweh which featured a mix of saluang klasik, saluang orgen, and orgen, the latter two to the chagrin of Te E and a number of her followers who came to see her. (She was not aware of the mix in advance and likely would have declined if she had been). If a host is holding a celebratory event, saluang lamak would not be appropriate--the limited audience would work against the festive atmosphere necessary. Other contexts, like bagurau lapiak, at least in 2015 and 2016, guaranteed a mix of styles, with little of saluang klasik and more orgen.

The style or styles featured very much structure and circumscribe the options available for which performers are engaged, which audiences attend, the songs performed, the nature of the interactions, and the kinds of lyrics.

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