This site requires Javascript to be turned on. Please enable Javascript and reload the page.

Song in the Sumatran Highlands

Style: Saluang Klasik

Definition: "Saluang that is classic." The word, "klasik," clearly adopted from English is one that has been applied retroactively in order to distinguish the standard style of saluang. In other words, it was ushered into being when people started experimenting with new saluang styles and instrument combinations. The term "klasik" claims originality, purity, like this is the original saluang style. Many performers don't qualify the style in this way. It is, in part, an invention of the recording industry.

Performer line up: The most conventional line-up involves:

a tukang saluang
2-3 padendang, though more may be involved depending on the context
a janang may be involved in certain contexts, such as community and fundraising events. They are not involved in performers for life-cycle events

Economics: The key performers for the event have been contracted and specifically engaged for the event. They are paid an advance as part of the informal contract, and the remainder is delivered during the evening. The events may sometimes be a fundraiser for the community, where funds raised through audience requests go towards the community or the costs affiliated with hosting the event. The performers are paid a fixed sum, not earning additional tips.

Context: Saluang klasik can be found in a number of contexts including

life cycle celebrations
- weddings
- circumcisions
community celebrations
- halal bil halal, held at the end of Ramadan

Performance Space:

Outside the house at family events
In the street, indoor halls, or other communal spaces for community events

Amplification: Typically amplified through massive speaker systems.

Repertoire:

the predominant repertoire covered are songs part of the saluang repertoire, principally those classified as ratok, singgalang, satangah tiang, and gembira.
there are a number of songs that have been incorporated into and made part of the saluang repertoire from other Minangkabau genres.

Time frame: This style is the dominant saluang style that has existed for many years. It is unclear when amplification was added. It is also unclear when the system of requests commenced beyond requests for a specific song.

Region: While the style originates in the darek, performers are requested throughout the rantau, including other provinces in Indonesia where Minang people reside.

This page has paths:

Contents of this path:

Contents of this tag:

This page is referenced by:

Repertoire Songs are the central musical unit around which performances are oriented. There might be anywhere from thirty to fifty songs performed in one evening. Many contexts for performance allow for attendees to request specific songs (see Introduction to Performances for more details). Performers, therefore, need to be familiar with the songs in the repertoire (the body of songs attached to the genre), but just how many songs and which songs are included in that repertoire is debatable and fluid. The "core repertoire" (defined here loosely as those songs I tracked at performances) in 2016 was not the same as those I tracked in 2004, nor surely the same as the 1980s, as suggested by the Mardjani et al. research report. The songs that performers know and that attendees request have shifted over the years, though the requests also shift based on place: where performances happen and the places from which attendees at those performances come. The "Repertoire" and "Interpretation" pages for each performance reflect the specific repertoire at each performance. For example, the performance in Suayan: repertoire and interpretation.

Establishing a precise number of songs in the repertoire is next to impossible as the tradition is not static and there is regional variation. The estimates of the number of songs vary greatly. When I spoke with Mak Sawir back in January 2004, he estimated 860 songs (casual conversation, January 26, 2004, coffeeshop in Bukittinggi). When I asked Te E in July 2016, she furnished a list of 227 songs that she made (interview with Te E, Payokumbuah, July 25, 2016). Mak Lenggang, a full time professor at Institut Seni Indonesia and part-time saluang player, told me once there were hundreds of songs, 150 of which were Singgalang (interview/ casual conversation, Padang Panjang, July 27, 2015). My favorite answer to this question--"too many to count"-- was from Mila (interview, Payokumbuah, July 26, 2016). These widely varying numbers, then, reveal differences in the experiences of performers: how many years they have been active, who they studied and performed with, and in what places they lived and mostly performed. I would expect Mak Sawir, then at the height of his career, to know the most, and a more junior singer to know considerably fewer. I would expect a padendang active mostly in Agam to have mastered that regional repertoire more than the repertoire associated with Tanah Data. The very best singers--such as Mak Sawir and Te E--will know the most songs, at least from the saluang klasik repertoire. It is incumbent on professionals to be as familiar with as many songs as possible because audience members can request any number of songs. Usually, one of the several padendang sitting on a stage will know the song. Of course, the tukang saluang also needs to know it as the saluang always begins a song. Only rarely have I see experienced performers fumble, struggling to remember a tune.

The only performer who has so far shared a list of songs with me is Te E. When I interviewed Syamsimar in 2004, she had a list of 247 songs (which excluded new imports), though I was not able to save a copy of this list (interview with Syamsimar, Pariangan, September 24, 2004). What is interesting is who has made lists and why they did so. Here we have tried to track and count those songs encountered, whether in live performance, Te E's list, or the list produced in Mardjani et al.'s research report. For the latter, however, it does not replicate all 385 songs, because the report was on Dendang Minangkabau broadly speaking and not just the repertoire associated with saluang. I decided to extract all those titles that were clearly affiliated with the darek. I excluded those that had no indication of region or those that were affiliated with the rantau, as they are affiliated with other musical traditions and the songs may not have made their way into saluang repertoire. Also excluded from this list are the titles to songs encountered only on commercial recordings in my possession. That would add another 30 or so titles to the list.

In the following pages, we present different ways of organizing the repertoire, along with the repertoire that was represented at performances Jennifer witnessed.
Performance: Sariak Laweh, July 25, 2016 20 Malam Bagurau image_header 2021-05-12T19:13:22+00:00 -0.22432, 100.5288 07/25/2016
Date: July 25-26, 2016
Time: 10p.m.-3.15a.m.
Place: Sariak Laweh

Style: This performance was unique of those I attended in 2016 as it included a range of musical styles, much to the surprise of Te E, who had specifically invited Pak Ketua and I to the performance. She had anticipated that it would only be saluang klasik, as she declined invitations to performances where the style would be what she called "campua adok" (all mixed up).

The three styles here include:
- Saluang klasik: this is the main style discussed in this project.
- Saluang orgen: instrumentation and songs from saluang klasik combined with the use of an orgen (the local term used for synthesizer)
- Orgen: this refers to a line-up of singer/s with orgen. The songs are typically from local pop genres and not from the saluang repertoire.
Occasion: Malam Bagurau for a Wedding. In this case, the music was the night time entertainment, after a long day of receiving guests.

Set up: A stage was set up next to the house, with tables and chairs set out under a canopy. Some pagurau chose to stand on the sides, in the adjacent rice paddies.

Performers:
- Padendang:
  - Te E
  - Si Sri
  - Ika
- Tukang Saluang: Kamarudin
- Orgen: Warlan, 1994 graduate of ASKI (now ISI).
- Janang: None. It is customary to not have a janang at a wedding.
Audience: At the beginning of the evening, the audience was mixed gender. But as the night progressed, the women went home and the men were left. I estimated about 150 people at the peak.

Ethnographers: Jennifer & Pak Ketua
Attendance: We were there for the entirety of the performance, from the opening with "Singgalang Induak" packing up as the singers launched into "Jalu-Jalu."
Notes:
Performance: Balai Cacang, July 16, 2016 17 Malam Bagurau image_header 2021-06-18T12:29:41+00:00 -0.21657, 100.64429 07/16/2016
Date: July 16, 2016
Place: Balai Cacang, Payokumbuah
Style: Saluang Klasik
Occasion: Neighborhood entertainment
Set up: Stage, tables and chairs, loose chairs, and low tables for games. A warung (café) is set up in the back, serving tea and coffee.
Performers:
- Padendang: Si Mun, Siti
- Tukang Saluang: Not yet identified
- Janang: None
Audience: Approximately 50 people, including a handful of women using headscarves.
Ethnographers: Jennifer & Pak Ketua
Attendance: 10.38 p.m.-just before midnight, when we left to go to another performance
Notes: There might have been more women present because we were then early in the evening and it was a neighborhood event. The audience interaction was relatively low, perhaps in response to the quality of the performers.
Performance: Ngalau, July 31, 2015 17 Bagurau Lapiak image_header 2021-06-21T15:01:20+00:00 -0.25495, 100.60435 07/31/2015
Date: July 31-August 1, 2015
Time: Just before midnight
Place: Ngalau
Style: The part of performance I witnessed involved a mix of saluang klasik and orgen. The evening should have involved saluang orgen, but the saluang player engaged for the evening had not shown up by the time we arrived and so the man playing the synthesizer when we arrived did double duty and switched to saluang.
Occasion: Bagurau Lapiak
Set up: This setting was more clearly a permanent structure, like a kedai (a coffee shop) with a permanent stage at the front near the entrance, roughly hewn tables, chairs, and benches for seating, and a kitchen at the back, opposite the singers, which served drinks. The space, I later learned, was specially built to host saluang performances. Compared to the performance in the market from which Pak Ketua and I had just come, this stage was spacious, with all performers seated and equipment located on the stage. The audience was also closer to the performers than the night's previous performance, providing a more intimate atmosphere akin to saluang performances at weddings.

Performers:
- Padendang:
  - Santi
  - Si Tel
  - young padendang whose name was not known to Pak Ketua
- Tukang Saluang/ Orgen:
- Janang:
Audience:
Ethnographers: Jennifer & Pak Ketua
Attendance: We arrived just before midnight, departing around 1a.m.
Notes: This was the second performance and the second bagurau lapiak we attended that evening.
Performance: Radio Republik Indonesia Bukittinggi, September 27, 2004 12 Bagurau di Udaro image_header 2021-09-03T20:45:13+00:00 -0.31698, 100.38478 09/27/2004
Date: September 27, 2004
Time:
Place: Radio Republik Indonesia Bukittinggi
Style: Saluang Klasik
Occasion: Bagurau di Udaro
Set up:
Performers:
- Padendang: Ajis St. Sati
- Tukang Saluang: Inyiak Harimau, Herman
- Janang/ Radio Host: Mak Il St. Rajo Endah
Audience:
Ethnographers:
Attendance:
Notes:
Context: Bagurau Lapiak 12 Bagurau Lapiak is a context for the performance of saluang image_header 2021-06-02T14:55:54+00:00
Definition of term: The term "bagurau lapiak" derives from the context. "Bagurau" is the typical term used to refer to saluang performers, "lapiak" means mats on which performers sit. While virtually all saluang performances involve mats (or sometimes carpet) on which performers sit, it actually refers to a set of contextual factors, the most important of which include economic and spatial factors.

Economic: As opposed to weddings, other life-cycle events, or community events, the performers are not contracted for these events and do not receive a fixed fee. Rather, they work for tips, dividing the earnings between themselves and, where relevant, the manager of the space. Pagurau at these events pay for the privilege of making requests, either for a particular song or of a particular singer. A financially successful bagurau lapiak is dependent on the performers’ ability to engage and keep an audience, a duty which falls largely to the vocalists and the janang, the emcee.

Space: These performances do not take place in the yards of private homes, rather they happen at markets, coffee shops, and road-side stalls, sometimes, like the coffee shop in Ngalau, they are specifically built for the purpose.

Musical Style: The context does not circumscribe the musical style. There are and have been performances involving one or more of the following styles:
- saluang klasik
- saluang orgen
- orgen
In 2015, I witnessed two performances, both of which featured saluang orgen and/or orgen more than saluang klasik. The orgen was part of the key line-up with the tukang saluang and padendang. At the first event, there was so little use of saluang as an instrument, meaning it was largely songs affiliated with the repertoire of orgen, that I asked Pak Ketua why it was even called "saluang." He responded that the performances still started and ended as a saluang performance would.

Behavior: When I had conversations about bagurau lapiak in 2015 and 2016, several performers and devotees told me that bagurau lapiak were venues where activities and behaviors outside the normative standards of Islamic propriety occur. In other words, things happen in these contexts that you would not witness at other kinds of saluang performances, including the consumption of alcohol and men dancing with the performers, though I have personally never witnessed either of these, I suspect because of my presence. In my experience, there is more interaction between performers and audience members at these events, including more flirting and racier lyrics.
Interpretation: Sariak Laweh, July 25, 2016 Style: Given that this performance incorporated three different musical styles, it is important to evaluate the relative amounts of time spent on each style. This is illustrated in the chart below relative to the total time music was performed (breaks and silences were excluded). Saluang klasik accounted for 46% of the time, while saluang orgen was 37% and orgen 17% of the time. That means the synthesizer was used for 54% of the songs while the saluang was used for 83%.

Type of Song: The following chart analyzes the overall performance time, including breaks. All the main types of dendang are indicated, but the songs which are adopted from saluang dangdut or other forms of popular music are all grouped together as"other" on this chart. At this performance significantly more time was spent on upbeat material than at saluang performances featuring just saluang klasik. In other words, the incorporation of saluang orgen as a style ensured that there was an emphasis on the gembira category of dendang, as the incorporation of synthesizer and its rhythmic programming only works with a steady beat, which is of the gembira category. All dendang performed in saluang orgen style were gembira, which accounted for 65% of all gembira songs, while those in saluang klasik were 28%. The remaining 7% were dendang gembira performed without any saluang accompaniment, adopted to the orgen repertoire: these were "Lubuak Aluang," "Sungai Pua Manurun" and "Tangkerang."

The emphasis on gembira songs meant a subsequent de-emphasis on ratok and satangah tiang categories, neither of which have a steady beat and thus are unsuited to synthesizer accompaniment. Ratok only took 14% of the overall performance, compared with 47% of the time at the performance at Suayan a few days later.

Breaks: It is significant that there was only one official break at this performance and it happened at 2 a.m., leaving just 30+ minutes of performance before wrapping up. The conventional break at midnight was skipped because there was orgen. Orgen could take over, thus giving the tukang saluang the necessary rest.

Padendang: This performance was the only event out of six I attended that summer that had more than two padendang. Pak Ketua and I had met with and interviewed Te E earlier that day, who told us about the performance later that night. When I met with her, she was not anticipating the presence of orgen nor that of Ika: it was as much a surprise to her as it was to Pak Ketua and I when we arrived. It seemed the committee in charge of arranging entertainment has booked the tukang orgen and Ika in addition to Te E and her group. Te E was not happy about it.

I knew from previous conversations with Te E, including the interview earlier that day, that she was disdainful of the developments that incorporated synthesizer into saluang. Like Mak Sawir, she thought it and some of the accompanying behaviors sullied saluang, that Minangkabau values were lost in the process (interview, July 25, 2016). If she had known about the presence of orgen in advance, she would have declined the invitation. Instead, she had to fulfill her contract, appearing to be polite and participate while nursing contrary feelings. At one point in the performance, during the orgen sequence, she left the stage and came sat with Pak Ketua and I. Typically, padendang do not leave the stage during the entirety of a performance, generally not even to go to the toilet.

Te E, then, declined to sing on a number of songs, including a number of songs performed in the saluang orgen style and all the songs performed with just orgen accompaniment--Ika was the only singer who performed during those. Te E took the lead on most of the songs from the saluang klasik repertoire, especially the ratok and satangah tiang, her speciality. She participated in the songs accompanied by saluang orgen only if the material was from the standard saluang repertoire. It seems that when the repertoire originated with saluang dangdut, she declined to participate. This was subtle commentary on the nature of aesthetic shifts.

Si Sri, in contrast, participated on all the saluang klasik songs and all the saluang orgen tunes, taking lead on most of those. She did not participate on the orgen tunes. When I interviewed her, she said she preferred the klasik repertoire, but didn't have a problem participating in saluang orgen if necessary. Unlike Te E, she didn't decline those invitations. The difference in approach might be explained by their age difference: Te E is Si Sri's senior by 27 years.

Because Ika covered all the orgen repertoire, she sang on more individual songs than Te E, the star singer, even though she might best be described as a padendang in training, still learning and mastering the repertoire. The only songs she did not sing on were the more difficult ratok, including "Kamang Patah Tigo," "Kambang Aia Aji" and "Koto Tuo Patah Pucuak." Otherwise, she sang at least one pantun on all the other saluang klasik songs.
Context: Weddings and Circumcisions 11 Weddings and Circumcisions are contexts for the performance of saluang image_header 2021-03-24T19:28:27+00:00
Lifecycle events, primarily weddings and circumcisions, are occasions that might be celebrated with the performance of saluang. Typically, the main ceremonial event--the baralek--takes place during the day time. This is when guests invited specifically by the host stop by the event to convey their wishes and share in a meal. The images directly above and below are from baralek. In the one above, guests are mostly seated outside to eat. In the one below, guests came inside to eat, sitting on the floor around the spread.

Saluang performances take place during the evening, either the night before the main baralek when people are up late cooking food all night, or the night at the end of the main baralek. In the case of the former, the performance helps provide samangek (enthusiasm) for the folks cooking. In the case of the latter, it's a continuation of the celebration. I have only witnessed saluang once during the main baralek--see Performance: Padang Panjang, April 10, 2004, and that involved saluang dangdut, a more upbeat form of entertainment appropriate for celebration than the sad, contemplative songs that are delivered late at night. Based on the performances I attended, saluang was more likely to happen in coordination with a wedding than a circumcision. The only circumcision event where I encountered saluang was Performance: Batu Balang, July 17, 2016.

Economics: The performers for all these occasions are contracted and paid a fixed fee. Pagurau do not pay for requests.

Space: These performances usually take place in the yards of private homes or perhaps on the street, where a temporary stage has been erected. Seating may or may not be provided for the pagurau. In my experience, seating is provided when wedding guests are likely to sit outside When guests enter the house to eat, smaller more modest weddings, then no seating is provided, like at a wedding Performance: Suayan, August 2, 2015. Note the audience standing in the background of this image.

Audience: In both cases, those attending are not limited to those individuals formally invited. Anyone in the neighborhood or who has heard about the performance is welcome to come witness. Typically hosts will provide refreshments to these guests, including coffee, tea, and snacks.

Musical Style: The context does not circumscribe the musical style, though saluang klasik is the most common. The host family choses their favorites, including
- saluang klasik
- saluang orgen
- saluang dangdut
- orgen
They might even chose a mix of styles, like at Performance: Sariak Laweh, July 25, 2016.

Behavior: Most of these performances followed mainstream Minangkabau standards of decorum. The behavior of the pagurau is at its most respectable on these occasions, out of deference for the hosts. If they make requests for specific songs, they usually do so discreetly, whispering to someone on stage or slipping them a piece of paper. There is not the same interactive back and fro for the most part with the audience. People attend for sociality, as much as the music. Sometimes the pagurau play games, like jeki or dominoes, during the performance.
Style: Saluang Orgen 8 This style features saluang songs accompanied by a synthesizer image_header 2021-03-28T22:00:39+00:00
Definition: This is a term that some people use to refer to the combination of saluang klasik line up plus a synthesizer.

Performer line up: The most conventional line-up involves:
- a tukang saluang
- 2-3 padendang, though more may be involved depending on the context
- a keyboard player
- a janang may be involved in certain contexts, such as community and fundraising events. They are not involved in performers for life-cycle events
Context: Saluang orgen can be found in a number of contexts including
- life cycle celebrations
  - weddings
  - circumcisions
- community celebrations
  - halal bil halal, held at the end of Ramadan
- bagurau lapiak
Economics: These depend on the performance context
- wedding etc.: contracted in advance
- bagurau lapiak: share of the takings for an evening.
Performance Space:
- Outside the house at family events
- In the street, indoor halls, markets, coffee house etc.
Amplification: Typically amplified through massive speaker systems.

Repertoire: saluang orgen line-up typically covers only part of the saluang repertoire, songs that have a steady rhythm, including singgalang, gembira, and some satangah tiang, along with all the songs imported into the repertoire from pop repertoire.

Time frame: This style is the dominant saluang style that has existed for many years. It is unclear when amplification was added. It is also unclear when the system of requests commenced beyond requests for a specific song.

Region: This combination style is found in the darek. It's unclear how common it might be in the rantau or whether people there prefer saluang klasik.

Note: As a style saluang orgen is distinct from just orgen. The two key distinctions are:
1. the use of the saluang and
2. the coverage of songs part of the broader saluang repertoire.
Some performances, like the malam bagurau at Sariak Laweh, involve a mix of styles: saluang klasik, saluang orgen, and orgen. Not all singers are comfortable straying beyond the saluang klasik format, participating only out of politeness.
Context: Community Celebrations 5 Various community celebrations are cause for saluang performance image_header 2021-03-24T12:21:07+00:00
There are a wide range of occasions celebrated by a community that could incorporate saluang. Some that I have encountered include:
- halal-bihalal (which means asking for forgiveness). These are community gatherings, often held to celebrate Lebaran, the week or so of celebration following Ramadan, the month of fasting in the Islamic calendar. Examples include
  - Performance: Kampung Jambak, December 2, 2003
- community entertainment
  - Performance: Balai Cacang, July 16, 2016
- fundraisers
  - Performance: Pariangan, February 10, 2004
- institutional events, such as reunions, conferences, meetings
  - Performance: Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia, December 23, 2003
Some of these events are held explicitly as fundraisers for a community project (Pariangan, February 10, 2004) and others might include collecting fiscal contributions to offset costs of putting on the event (Kampung Jambak, December 2, 2003). If attendees are paying for requests, then a janang is always involved. At these events, refreshments may be available nearby, but pagurau need to purchase for themselves.

Economics: Even if one of these events are designated as a fundraiser, the performers for all these occasions are contracted and paid a fixed fee. Unlike bagurau lapiak, they are not working for tips: funds raised go the designated cause.

Space: These performances do not take place in the yards of private homes, rather they happen in spaces accessible to the targeted community, including by the side of the street, in an open area, in institutional buildings,

Musical Style: The context does not circumscribe the musical style, but all those I witnessed involved saluang klasik

Behavior: Most of these performances followed mainstream Minangkabau standards of decorum. They are more jovial and interactive, however, if there is a janang present. At some events, men might play games in the background, present for the sociality of the evening as much as for the music.
Choosing Saluang Style
Why does one host prefer saluang klasik and work to secure the best singers for their event while another prefers a mix of style, working to bend saluang klasik with more popular styles, like saluang orgen or just plain orgen? To revisit the list of styles list the module on style.

The various contextual factors that structure the when, why, and what of an event play into and help guide the choice of saluang style a host family or organization are likely to desire at their event. The choice of style also has to do with positionally, or how a host choses to position themselves: are they traditionalists or are they cosmopolitan? Do they want to assert a foot in both worlds? Do they have the economic capital to do so? Put simply, those who are pacandu or saluang devotees will always choose saluang klasik as will those working with more limited budgets. But those who are interested in projecting themselves as a little more cosmopolitan might attempt a blend, like the event at Sariak Laweh which featured a mix of saluang klasik, saluang orgen, and orgen, the latter two to the chagrin of Te E and a number of her followers who came to see her. (She was not aware of the mix in advance and likely would have declined if she had been). If a host is holding a celebratory event, saluang lamak would not be appropriate--the limited audience would work against the festive atmosphere necessary. Other contexts, like bagurau lapiak, at least in 2015 and 2016, guaranteed a mix of styles, with little of saluang klasik and more orgen.

The style or styles featured very much structure and circumscribe the options available for which performers are engaged, which audiences attend, the songs performed, the nature of the interactions, and the kinds of lyrics.